The continental branch of churches represented by the Dutch Reformed tradition is perhaps, along with Scottish and Korean Presbyterianism, one of the most vibrant expressions of Calvinism today. This site profiles the development of the Dutch Reformed tradition from 1548 to the present, in both the Netherlands and North America. The profile is followed by a summary chart and denominational directory.
The original Reformed churches were blessed with gifted and competent leaders, including visionaries like Guido de Brès (1522-1567), author of the Belgic Confession (1561), as well as Caspar Olevianus (1536-1587) and Zacharias Ursinus (1534-1583), formulators of the Heidelberg Catechism (1563). Both treatises would gain confessional status to which most Reformed churches still subscribe.
With continuous growth, the Reformed churches in the lowlands began to develop a denominational structure. On the heels of the Walloon and Flemish Synods of Armentières in 1563 and Antwerp in 1566, a number of Dutch Calvinists first met in captivity at the Convent of Wezel in 1568, where a tentative church order was drawn up. The meeting at Wezel led to the Synod of Emden in 1571, which many regard as the first official assembly of the Reformed churches in the Netherlands. The early Dutch reformers appealed to precedent, adopting John Calvin's 'Ecclesiastical Ordinances' (1541) as a blueprint for ecclesiastical polity and the Belgic Confession, translated into Dutch in 1562, as a statement of faith. Wezel and Emden established the principles and practices of Reformed church government, giving credence to the Reformed churches in the Netherlands as an independent body devoted to the principles of Calvinism, the Protestant Reformation and the historic Christian faith. Notable leaders of the early Reformed churches in the Netherlands include Johannes a Lasco (1499-1560), Maarten Micron, (1523-1559), Pieter Datheen (1531-1588), Gaspar van der Heyden (1530-1586) and Philips van Marnix, Lord of Sint-Aldegonde (1538-1598). Despite political upheaval and the threat of civil war, the Reformed churches remained unified in faith and doctrine for the next forty years.
Following a bold nationalistic uprising in 1572, the Netherlands gained political independence from Spain. Enjoying newfound liberties, the Reformed churches hosted another synod in Dordrecht in 1574. A year later, a theological school was established in Leiden. A gesture of goodwill from Prince William of Orange (1650-1702), the seminary was a reward to the citizens of Leiden for their courageous defence of the city during the Spanish occupation. The theological school was later granted the motto 'Praesidium Libertatis' or 'Bastion of Liberty'. Today the seminary is known as the University of Leiden. Ensuing synods were held, again in Dordrecht in 1578, Middleburg in 1581 and The Hague in 1586. Unfortunately the cooperative spirit that characterized the early development of the Dutch Reformed churches waned. Just as the Netherlands embraced independence, the Reformed churches would begin to experience inner tensions.
Ordained in 1588 and appointed Professor of Theology at the University of Leiden in 1603, Jacob Arminius (1560-1609) began to voice doubts about a number of the key tenets of Calvinism. His essential struggle revolved around the reconciliation of God's sovereignty with human free will. Arminius found a following with a growing number of like-minded colleagues at Leiden, including his successor, Konrad Vorstius (1569-1622), but was opposed by other colleagues like Franciscus Gomarus (1563–1641) and Johannes Bogermann (1570-1637). Arminius's followers, known as the Remonstrants, increasingly pressed their grievances, leading towards an inevitable confrontation. The thorny contentions of Arminius and the Remonstrants soon preoccupied the entire country, moving the Netherlands toward the brink of civil war. The controversy came to a head in 1618 when the Remonstrants issued a formal protest called 'De Vijf Artikelen van Remonstantie' ('The Arminian Articles of Remonstrance' or 'The Five Articles to the Reformed Church of Holland'). The Reformed churches responded by calling a National Synod, convened in Dordrecht with the approval of the 'Staten van Holland' (States of Holland) and the 'Staten Generaal' (Parliament of the Dutch Republic).
The synod met into 1619, dealing with each article of the Remonstrant's protest one by one. In the end, the teachings of Jacob Arminius were rejected and the Remonstrants expelled. The refutation of the 'Five Articles to the Reformed Church of Holland' resulted in the formulation of the five points of Calvinism and the publication of the Canons of Dordt, an historic document that not only set out the doctrinal distinctives of the Reformed churches but would, itself, assume confessional status. The Canons, alongside the Belgic Confession and Heidelberg Catechism, complete what is known today as the 'Three Forms of Unity', the threefold creedal underpinning of Dutch Calvinism.
At the same time the Synod of Dordt authorized a standard Bible translation for the Reformed churches called 'De Statenvertaling' (SV)(The Translation of the States), ordered ecclesiastical life, dealt with control of the church by the state and investigated a number of overseas mission opportunities. Following the synod, the Remonstrants established a separate body called the Remonstrantse Broederschap (RB)(Remonstrant Brotherhood). The Reformed churches, meanwhile, pressed on with renewed vision and focus. New initiatives and opportunities presented themselves as colonial shores in North America, Africa and Asia beckoned.
With a fresh mandate from Dordtrecht, Calvinism was officially recognized as the state religion in the Netherlands and with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, the Reformed churches were extended special privileges. The Reformed churches also experienced new growth in 1685 when a large number of Huguenots fled religious persecution in France. The refugees joined the Reformed churches, maintaining a French-speaking faction called the 'Waalse Kerken' or 'Églises Wallonnes'. Aside from a key doctrinal exchange between Gisbertus Voetius (1589-1676) and Johannes Cocceius (1603-1669) at Leiden and the depositions of Balthasar Bekker (1634-1698), Herman Alexander Roëll (1653–1718) and Johannes Vlak (1635-1690) from Classis Walcheren, there were few organizational changes within the Reformed churches.
The small low-lying nation experienced renewed political upheaval with the arrival of French Revolutionary armies and the Batavia Revolution in 1795. The revolt forced a separation of church and state in the Netherlands, stripping the Reformed churches of their special state privileges. In 1796 the practice of paying stipends to Reformed ministers ended.
Following the end of the French Revolution, church and state were again reunited. But despite political peace, discontent was mounting within many Reformed congregations. A new threat faced the church with the advent of 18th century Rationalism and higher criticism of Scripture. In reaction to what many saw as spiritual deadness in the pulpit and pews, a renewal movement began to gain momentum, sweeping across the newly established United Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1813. The revival became known as 'De Reveil' (The Renewal), blossoming under the leadership of Willem Bilderdijk (1756-1831), Nicholas Schotsman (1754-1822) and Isaäc da Costa (1798-1860). The movement met resistance, however, when in 1816 William I (1772-1843), King of the United Netherlands, imposed a new hierarchical, collegial system on the Reformed churches. The Monarch introduced a new church order called the 'Het Algemeen Regelement' (General Regulations), usurping the ecclesiastical authority of the Reformed churches. The churches were consolidated, designated to official state status and renamed the Nederlands Hervormde Kerk (NHK)(Netherlands Reformed Church). The new regulations and other government-imposed practices antagonized local clergy and grassroots parishioners and a number of dissidents began to voice opposition. Resistance to King William's control of the church climaxed in 1834 with 'De Afscheiding' (The Separation) or Secession of 1834.
Hendrik de Cock (1801-1842) posted an Act of Separation and Return contesting the direction of the Dutch State Church and was promptly suspended by the Nederlands Hervormde Kerk (NHK). His congregation in Ulrum withdrew from the Nederlands Hervormde Kerk (NHK) resulting in the formation of the Christelijke Afgescheiden Gemeenten (Christian Separated Congregations). Other ministers began to protest against the theological liberalism and state influence in the Nederlands Hervormde Kerk (NHK) and decided to leave as well. Within two years, more than one hundred independent congregations were established throughout the Netherlands, eventually forming two loose camps: the Christelijke Afgescheiden Gereformeerde Kerken (Christian Separated Reformed Churches) and the Gereformeerde Kerken in Nederland, (Reformed Churches in the Netherlands), often referred to as the Gereformeerde Kerken onder het Kruis (Reformed Churches under the Cross) or Kruisgezinden (cross-centred). Notable leaders of the secession churches included Simon Van Velzen (1809-1896), Antonie Brummelkamp (1811-1888), Albertus van Raalte (1811-1876) and Hendrik Scholte (1805-1868).
Another pastor, Lambertus Ledeboer (1808-1863), led an additional group out of the Dutch State Church when he was suspended by the Nederlands Hervormde Kerk (NHK) in 1841. Unwilling to affiliate with the Christelijke Afgescheiden Gereformeerde Kerken or Gereformeerde Kerken in Nederland, Ledeboer's departure resulted in the formation of the Ledeboeriaanse Gemeenten (Ledeboer Congregations).
The Dutch government finally relented to mounting pressure within the Nederlands Hervormde Kerk (NHK), transferring ecclesiastical authority back to the National Synod in 1843. But many secessionists, motivated by the persuasive arguments of Antonie Brummelkamp, began to look for a better future across the Atlantic. Afscheiding dissidents crossed over to North American shores when, in 1846, Albertus van Raalte left the Netherlands and immigrated to the United States, establishing, along with his followers, the community of Holland, Michigan. In 1847 Hendrik Scholte followed, establishing a community in Pella, Iowa. This marked the beginning of the Afscheiding presence in America and eventually led to the formation of the Hollandsche Gereformeerde Kerk (Holland Reformed Church), now known as the Christian Reformed Church in North America (CRC).
The reformulated constitution of 1848 transferred power from the Dutch Monarchy to the legislature, affirming religious freedom for all. As Liberalism and religious pluralism began to flourish, the ties between church and state began to loosen, although the Nederlands Hervormde Kerk (NHK) officially remained under state control. In 1852, the Nederlands Hervormde Kerk (NHK) church order was re-drafted once again. This time, the Dutch government relinquished most of its rights and responsibilities over the Nederlands Hervormde Kerk (NHK), giving the Dutch State Church even more independence. By 1862, the Dutch government had phased out the Ministry of Religion. However, concerns over the theological drift of the Dutch State Church led to the formation of a new entity in 1864 led by Groen van Prinsterer (1808-1876) and known as the Confessionele Vereniging (Confessional Association), a precursor to the second major exodus out of the Nederlands Hervormde Kerk (NHK) known as 'De Doleantie' (The Grieving) or Secession of 1886.
Concerned about the direction of the Dutch State Church and inspired by Groen van Prinsterer, theologian, journalist and future Prime Minister, Abraham Kuyper (1837-1920) led a new group out of the Nederlands Hervormde Kerk (NHK), resulting in the formation of the Nederduits Gereformeerde Kerk (Dutch Reformed Church). Seeking common cause with the original secession churches of 1834, which had officially incorporated as a denomination in 1869 with the union of the Afgescheidenen and Kruisgezinden camps and adopted the name 'Christelijke Gereformeerde Kerk in Nederland' (CGK)(Christian Reformed Church in the Netherlands), Abraham Kuyper orchestrated a merger, resulting in the union of the Nederduits Gereformeerde Kerken with the Christelijke Gereformeede Kerken at the Synod of Amsterdam in 1892. The newly minted denomination adopted the name Gereformeerde Kerken in Nederland (GKN)(Reformed Churches in the Netherlands). Some churches declined to participate in the union and remained separate, retaining the name Christelijke Gereformeerde Kerk (CGK).
In 1905 the general synod of the Gereformeerde Kerken in Nederland (GKN) adopted the Conclusions of Utrecht (a conciliatory statement on the relationship between baptism and regeneration) and modified the Belgic Confession (by deleting passages from Article 36 which entrust the government with the task of suppressing all false religions and destroying the reign of the Antichrist). In 1906 orthodox congregations within the Nederlands Hervormde Kerk (NHK) split off from the Confessionele Vereniging and formed the Gereformeerde Bond (Reformed Alliance).
In 1907 Gerrit Kersten (1882-1948) united thirty-five independent Ledeboeriaanse Gemeenten, resulting in the formation of the Gereformeerde Gemeenten (GG)(Reformed Congregations). The Gereformeerde Gemeenten (GG) established close ties with like-minded congregations across the Atlantic, known in the United States as the Netherlands Reformed Congregations (NRC). A number of independent congregations in the Netherlands accepted the invitation of Gerrit Kersten to consider a union, but in the end, under the leadership of Laurens Boone (1860-1935) decided to remain independent, resulting in the formation of the Oud Gereformeerde Gemeenten in Nederland (OGG)(Old Reformed Congregations in the Netherlands). Another group, the Federatie van Oud Gereformeerde Gemeenten (Federation of Old Reformed Congregations) was officially established in 1912.
Despite the ongoing consolidation of independent Reformed congregations across the Netherlands, the Gereformeerde Kerken in Nederland (GKN) remained the largest denomination outside the Nederlands Hervormde Kerk (NHK). But renewed controversy in the first few decades of the 20th century would cast a pall over Abraham Kuyper's 1892 union.
A progressive group holding to an allegorical view of Genesis left the Gereformeerde Kerken (GKN) in 1926, forming the Gereformeerde Kerken in Hersteld Verband (GKHV)(Reformed Churches in Restored Union). The Gereformeerde Kerken Hersteld Verband eventually joined the Nederlands Hervormde Kerk (NHK) in 1946.
A more serious break occured within the Gereformeerde Kerken (GKN) when ongoing concerns regarding Abraham Kuyper's particular views on covenant theology and baptism and subsequent synodical battles came to a head in 1944 leading to the suspension of Klaas Schilder (1890-1952). Known as 'De Vrijmaking' (The Liberation) or Article 31 Controversy, the suspension resulted in the formation of the Gereformeerde Kerken vrijgemaakt (GKv)(Reformed Churches liberated).
In 1947 the Christelijke Gereformeerde Kerk (CGK), independent since the Secession of 1834, changed its name to the Christelijke Gereformeede Kerken in Nederland (CGK)(Christian Reformed Churches in the Netherlands). A year later, the Oud Gereformeerde Gemeenten in Nederland (OGG) united with the Federatie van Oud Gereformeerde Gemeenten (Federation of Old Reformed Congregations). Some congregations of the Christelijke Gereformeerde Kerken (CGK) joined the Oud Gereformeerde Gemeenten in Nederland (OGG) in 1952. The Gereformeerde Gemeenten (GG) experienced a division in 1953 when Cornelis Steenblok (1894-1966) of the theological college of the Gereformeerde Gemeenten in Rotterdam was dismissed for his view of the limited offer of the Gospel. Steenblok established a new denomination, the Gereformeerde Gemeenten in Nederland (GGN)(Reformed Congregations in the Netherlands).
The Nederlands Hervormde Kerk (NHK) and the Gereformeerde Kerken (GKN) initiated discussions on a proposed merger in 1958, setting in motion a process of reconciliation between the Dutch State Church and Abraham Kuyper's secession churches.
A renewed controversy within the Gereformeerde Kerken vrijgemaakt (GKv) in 1969 resulted in the formation of another denomination, the Nederlands Gereformeerde Kerken (NGK)(Netherlands Reformed Churches). The Gereformeerde Gemeenten in Nederland (GGN) suffered a split in 1980, resulting in the Gereformeerde Gemeenten in Nederland buiten verband (GGNbv)(Reformed Congregations in the Netherlands unaffiliated).
The conclusion of long and protracted negotiations, the Nederlands Hervormde Kerk (NHK) and the Gereformeerde Kerken (GKN) finally merged in 2004, along with the Evangelisch-Lutherse Kerk in het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden (ELKN)(Evangelical Lutheran Church in the Kingdom of the Netherlands) resulting in the formation of the Protestantse Kerk in Nederland (PKN)(Protestant Church in the Netherlands). A number of churches abstained from the merger, resulting in the formation of the Hersteld Hervormde Kerk (HHK)(Restored Reformed Church) and the Voortgezette Gereformeerde Kerken in Nederland (VGK)(Continued Reformed Churches in the Netherlands). A new controversy within the Gereformeerde Kerken vrijgemaakt (GKv) has recently resulted in the formation of yet another denomination, the Gereformeerde Kerken hersteld (GKh)(Reformed Churches restored).
The Netherlands
The Protestant Reformation took root in the Netherlands in 1548 as growing numbers of Reformed believers began to organize and meet together for worship in the Northern Dutch provinces of 'De Nederlanden' (The Low Lands). The Reformers embraced the doctrines championed by Martin Luther (1483-1546) and systemized by John Calvin (1509-1564), but were forced underground by the reign of Philip II, King of Spain (1527-1598) and inquisition of his deputy Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, Duke of Alba (1507-1582). Despite the cruelty of Alba’s tribunals and blood councils against the Reformers, the persecuted congregations grew, supported by a swelling nationalist movement that sought the liberation of the Netherlands from Spain.The original Reformed churches were blessed with gifted and competent leaders, including visionaries like Guido de Brès (1522-1567), author of the Belgic Confession (1561), as well as Caspar Olevianus (1536-1587) and Zacharias Ursinus (1534-1583), formulators of the Heidelberg Catechism (1563). Both treatises would gain confessional status to which most Reformed churches still subscribe.
With continuous growth, the Reformed churches in the lowlands began to develop a denominational structure. On the heels of the Walloon and Flemish Synods of Armentières in 1563 and Antwerp in 1566, a number of Dutch Calvinists first met in captivity at the Convent of Wezel in 1568, where a tentative church order was drawn up. The meeting at Wezel led to the Synod of Emden in 1571, which many regard as the first official assembly of the Reformed churches in the Netherlands. The early Dutch reformers appealed to precedent, adopting John Calvin's 'Ecclesiastical Ordinances' (1541) as a blueprint for ecclesiastical polity and the Belgic Confession, translated into Dutch in 1562, as a statement of faith. Wezel and Emden established the principles and practices of Reformed church government, giving credence to the Reformed churches in the Netherlands as an independent body devoted to the principles of Calvinism, the Protestant Reformation and the historic Christian faith. Notable leaders of the early Reformed churches in the Netherlands include Johannes a Lasco (1499-1560), Maarten Micron, (1523-1559), Pieter Datheen (1531-1588), Gaspar van der Heyden (1530-1586) and Philips van Marnix, Lord of Sint-Aldegonde (1538-1598). Despite political upheaval and the threat of civil war, the Reformed churches remained unified in faith and doctrine for the next forty years.
Following a bold nationalistic uprising in 1572, the Netherlands gained political independence from Spain. Enjoying newfound liberties, the Reformed churches hosted another synod in Dordrecht in 1574. A year later, a theological school was established in Leiden. A gesture of goodwill from Prince William of Orange (1650-1702), the seminary was a reward to the citizens of Leiden for their courageous defence of the city during the Spanish occupation. The theological school was later granted the motto 'Praesidium Libertatis' or 'Bastion of Liberty'. Today the seminary is known as the University of Leiden. Ensuing synods were held, again in Dordrecht in 1578, Middleburg in 1581 and The Hague in 1586. Unfortunately the cooperative spirit that characterized the early development of the Dutch Reformed churches waned. Just as the Netherlands embraced independence, the Reformed churches would begin to experience inner tensions.
Ordained in 1588 and appointed Professor of Theology at the University of Leiden in 1603, Jacob Arminius (1560-1609) began to voice doubts about a number of the key tenets of Calvinism. His essential struggle revolved around the reconciliation of God's sovereignty with human free will. Arminius found a following with a growing number of like-minded colleagues at Leiden, including his successor, Konrad Vorstius (1569-1622), but was opposed by other colleagues like Franciscus Gomarus (1563–1641) and Johannes Bogermann (1570-1637). Arminius's followers, known as the Remonstrants, increasingly pressed their grievances, leading towards an inevitable confrontation. The thorny contentions of Arminius and the Remonstrants soon preoccupied the entire country, moving the Netherlands toward the brink of civil war. The controversy came to a head in 1618 when the Remonstrants issued a formal protest called 'De Vijf Artikelen van Remonstantie' ('The Arminian Articles of Remonstrance' or 'The Five Articles to the Reformed Church of Holland'). The Reformed churches responded by calling a National Synod, convened in Dordrecht with the approval of the 'Staten van Holland' (States of Holland) and the 'Staten Generaal' (Parliament of the Dutch Republic).
The synod met into 1619, dealing with each article of the Remonstrant's protest one by one. In the end, the teachings of Jacob Arminius were rejected and the Remonstrants expelled. The refutation of the 'Five Articles to the Reformed Church of Holland' resulted in the formulation of the five points of Calvinism and the publication of the Canons of Dordt, an historic document that not only set out the doctrinal distinctives of the Reformed churches but would, itself, assume confessional status. The Canons, alongside the Belgic Confession and Heidelberg Catechism, complete what is known today as the 'Three Forms of Unity', the threefold creedal underpinning of Dutch Calvinism.
At the same time the Synod of Dordt authorized a standard Bible translation for the Reformed churches called 'De Statenvertaling' (SV)(The Translation of the States), ordered ecclesiastical life, dealt with control of the church by the state and investigated a number of overseas mission opportunities. Following the synod, the Remonstrants established a separate body called the Remonstrantse Broederschap (RB)(Remonstrant Brotherhood). The Reformed churches, meanwhile, pressed on with renewed vision and focus. New initiatives and opportunities presented themselves as colonial shores in North America, Africa and Asia beckoned.
With a fresh mandate from Dordtrecht, Calvinism was officially recognized as the state religion in the Netherlands and with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, the Reformed churches were extended special privileges. The Reformed churches also experienced new growth in 1685 when a large number of Huguenots fled religious persecution in France. The refugees joined the Reformed churches, maintaining a French-speaking faction called the 'Waalse Kerken' or 'Églises Wallonnes'. Aside from a key doctrinal exchange between Gisbertus Voetius (1589-1676) and Johannes Cocceius (1603-1669) at Leiden and the depositions of Balthasar Bekker (1634-1698), Herman Alexander Roëll (1653–1718) and Johannes Vlak (1635-1690) from Classis Walcheren, there were few organizational changes within the Reformed churches.
The small low-lying nation experienced renewed political upheaval with the arrival of French Revolutionary armies and the Batavia Revolution in 1795. The revolt forced a separation of church and state in the Netherlands, stripping the Reformed churches of their special state privileges. In 1796 the practice of paying stipends to Reformed ministers ended.
Following the end of the French Revolution, church and state were again reunited. But despite political peace, discontent was mounting within many Reformed congregations. A new threat faced the church with the advent of 18th century Rationalism and higher criticism of Scripture. In reaction to what many saw as spiritual deadness in the pulpit and pews, a renewal movement began to gain momentum, sweeping across the newly established United Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1813. The revival became known as 'De Reveil' (The Renewal), blossoming under the leadership of Willem Bilderdijk (1756-1831), Nicholas Schotsman (1754-1822) and Isaäc da Costa (1798-1860). The movement met resistance, however, when in 1816 William I (1772-1843), King of the United Netherlands, imposed a new hierarchical, collegial system on the Reformed churches. The Monarch introduced a new church order called the 'Het Algemeen Regelement' (General Regulations), usurping the ecclesiastical authority of the Reformed churches. The churches were consolidated, designated to official state status and renamed the Nederlands Hervormde Kerk (NHK)(Netherlands Reformed Church). The new regulations and other government-imposed practices antagonized local clergy and grassroots parishioners and a number of dissidents began to voice opposition. Resistance to King William's control of the church climaxed in 1834 with 'De Afscheiding' (The Separation) or Secession of 1834.
Hendrik de Cock (1801-1842) posted an Act of Separation and Return contesting the direction of the Dutch State Church and was promptly suspended by the Nederlands Hervormde Kerk (NHK). His congregation in Ulrum withdrew from the Nederlands Hervormde Kerk (NHK) resulting in the formation of the Christelijke Afgescheiden Gemeenten (Christian Separated Congregations). Other ministers began to protest against the theological liberalism and state influence in the Nederlands Hervormde Kerk (NHK) and decided to leave as well. Within two years, more than one hundred independent congregations were established throughout the Netherlands, eventually forming two loose camps: the Christelijke Afgescheiden Gereformeerde Kerken (Christian Separated Reformed Churches) and the Gereformeerde Kerken in Nederland, (Reformed Churches in the Netherlands), often referred to as the Gereformeerde Kerken onder het Kruis (Reformed Churches under the Cross) or Kruisgezinden (cross-centred). Notable leaders of the secession churches included Simon Van Velzen (1809-1896), Antonie Brummelkamp (1811-1888), Albertus van Raalte (1811-1876) and Hendrik Scholte (1805-1868).
Another pastor, Lambertus Ledeboer (1808-1863), led an additional group out of the Dutch State Church when he was suspended by the Nederlands Hervormde Kerk (NHK) in 1841. Unwilling to affiliate with the Christelijke Afgescheiden Gereformeerde Kerken or Gereformeerde Kerken in Nederland, Ledeboer's departure resulted in the formation of the Ledeboeriaanse Gemeenten (Ledeboer Congregations).
The Dutch government finally relented to mounting pressure within the Nederlands Hervormde Kerk (NHK), transferring ecclesiastical authority back to the National Synod in 1843. But many secessionists, motivated by the persuasive arguments of Antonie Brummelkamp, began to look for a better future across the Atlantic. Afscheiding dissidents crossed over to North American shores when, in 1846, Albertus van Raalte left the Netherlands and immigrated to the United States, establishing, along with his followers, the community of Holland, Michigan. In 1847 Hendrik Scholte followed, establishing a community in Pella, Iowa. This marked the beginning of the Afscheiding presence in America and eventually led to the formation of the Hollandsche Gereformeerde Kerk (Holland Reformed Church), now known as the Christian Reformed Church in North America (CRC).
The reformulated constitution of 1848 transferred power from the Dutch Monarchy to the legislature, affirming religious freedom for all. As Liberalism and religious pluralism began to flourish, the ties between church and state began to loosen, although the Nederlands Hervormde Kerk (NHK) officially remained under state control. In 1852, the Nederlands Hervormde Kerk (NHK) church order was re-drafted once again. This time, the Dutch government relinquished most of its rights and responsibilities over the Nederlands Hervormde Kerk (NHK), giving the Dutch State Church even more independence. By 1862, the Dutch government had phased out the Ministry of Religion. However, concerns over the theological drift of the Dutch State Church led to the formation of a new entity in 1864 led by Groen van Prinsterer (1808-1876) and known as the Confessionele Vereniging (Confessional Association), a precursor to the second major exodus out of the Nederlands Hervormde Kerk (NHK) known as 'De Doleantie' (The Grieving) or Secession of 1886.
Concerned about the direction of the Dutch State Church and inspired by Groen van Prinsterer, theologian, journalist and future Prime Minister, Abraham Kuyper (1837-1920) led a new group out of the Nederlands Hervormde Kerk (NHK), resulting in the formation of the Nederduits Gereformeerde Kerk (Dutch Reformed Church). Seeking common cause with the original secession churches of 1834, which had officially incorporated as a denomination in 1869 with the union of the Afgescheidenen and Kruisgezinden camps and adopted the name 'Christelijke Gereformeerde Kerk in Nederland' (CGK)(Christian Reformed Church in the Netherlands), Abraham Kuyper orchestrated a merger, resulting in the union of the Nederduits Gereformeerde Kerken with the Christelijke Gereformeede Kerken at the Synod of Amsterdam in 1892. The newly minted denomination adopted the name Gereformeerde Kerken in Nederland (GKN)(Reformed Churches in the Netherlands). Some churches declined to participate in the union and remained separate, retaining the name Christelijke Gereformeerde Kerk (CGK).
In 1905 the general synod of the Gereformeerde Kerken in Nederland (GKN) adopted the Conclusions of Utrecht (a conciliatory statement on the relationship between baptism and regeneration) and modified the Belgic Confession (by deleting passages from Article 36 which entrust the government with the task of suppressing all false religions and destroying the reign of the Antichrist). In 1906 orthodox congregations within the Nederlands Hervormde Kerk (NHK) split off from the Confessionele Vereniging and formed the Gereformeerde Bond (Reformed Alliance).
In 1907 Gerrit Kersten (1882-1948) united thirty-five independent Ledeboeriaanse Gemeenten, resulting in the formation of the Gereformeerde Gemeenten (GG)(Reformed Congregations). The Gereformeerde Gemeenten (GG) established close ties with like-minded congregations across the Atlantic, known in the United States as the Netherlands Reformed Congregations (NRC). A number of independent congregations in the Netherlands accepted the invitation of Gerrit Kersten to consider a union, but in the end, under the leadership of Laurens Boone (1860-1935) decided to remain independent, resulting in the formation of the Oud Gereformeerde Gemeenten in Nederland (OGG)(Old Reformed Congregations in the Netherlands). Another group, the Federatie van Oud Gereformeerde Gemeenten (Federation of Old Reformed Congregations) was officially established in 1912.
Despite the ongoing consolidation of independent Reformed congregations across the Netherlands, the Gereformeerde Kerken in Nederland (GKN) remained the largest denomination outside the Nederlands Hervormde Kerk (NHK). But renewed controversy in the first few decades of the 20th century would cast a pall over Abraham Kuyper's 1892 union.
A progressive group holding to an allegorical view of Genesis left the Gereformeerde Kerken (GKN) in 1926, forming the Gereformeerde Kerken in Hersteld Verband (GKHV)(Reformed Churches in Restored Union). The Gereformeerde Kerken Hersteld Verband eventually joined the Nederlands Hervormde Kerk (NHK) in 1946.
A more serious break occured within the Gereformeerde Kerken (GKN) when ongoing concerns regarding Abraham Kuyper's particular views on covenant theology and baptism and subsequent synodical battles came to a head in 1944 leading to the suspension of Klaas Schilder (1890-1952). Known as 'De Vrijmaking' (The Liberation) or Article 31 Controversy, the suspension resulted in the formation of the Gereformeerde Kerken vrijgemaakt (GKv)(Reformed Churches liberated).
In 1947 the Christelijke Gereformeerde Kerk (CGK), independent since the Secession of 1834, changed its name to the Christelijke Gereformeede Kerken in Nederland (CGK)(Christian Reformed Churches in the Netherlands). A year later, the Oud Gereformeerde Gemeenten in Nederland (OGG) united with the Federatie van Oud Gereformeerde Gemeenten (Federation of Old Reformed Congregations). Some congregations of the Christelijke Gereformeerde Kerken (CGK) joined the Oud Gereformeerde Gemeenten in Nederland (OGG) in 1952. The Gereformeerde Gemeenten (GG) experienced a division in 1953 when Cornelis Steenblok (1894-1966) of the theological college of the Gereformeerde Gemeenten in Rotterdam was dismissed for his view of the limited offer of the Gospel. Steenblok established a new denomination, the Gereformeerde Gemeenten in Nederland (GGN)(Reformed Congregations in the Netherlands).
The Nederlands Hervormde Kerk (NHK) and the Gereformeerde Kerken (GKN) initiated discussions on a proposed merger in 1958, setting in motion a process of reconciliation between the Dutch State Church and Abraham Kuyper's secession churches.
A renewed controversy within the Gereformeerde Kerken vrijgemaakt (GKv) in 1969 resulted in the formation of another denomination, the Nederlands Gereformeerde Kerken (NGK)(Netherlands Reformed Churches). The Gereformeerde Gemeenten in Nederland (GGN) suffered a split in 1980, resulting in the Gereformeerde Gemeenten in Nederland buiten verband (GGNbv)(Reformed Congregations in the Netherlands unaffiliated).
The conclusion of long and protracted negotiations, the Nederlands Hervormde Kerk (NHK) and the Gereformeerde Kerken (GKN) finally merged in 2004, along with the Evangelisch-Lutherse Kerk in het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden (ELKN)(Evangelical Lutheran Church in the Kingdom of the Netherlands) resulting in the formation of the Protestantse Kerk in Nederland (PKN)(Protestant Church in the Netherlands). A number of churches abstained from the merger, resulting in the formation of the Hersteld Hervormde Kerk (HHK)(Restored Reformed Church) and the Voortgezette Gereformeerde Kerken in Nederland (VGK)(Continued Reformed Churches in the Netherlands). A new controversy within the Gereformeerde Kerken vrijgemaakt (GKv) has recently resulted in the formation of yet another denomination, the Gereformeerde Kerken hersteld (GKh)(Reformed Churches restored).
